he result of the bitter civil war which had temporarily incapacitated the Empire, was that Vespasian (right) was now emperor and he almost immediately set in motion a new military policy towards Britain, that of total conquest. A new military governor, Petilius Cerialis, was appointed in 71 AD and around the same time the Ninth Legion was moved forward from Lincoln to York, as a prelude to their final pacification of the troublesome northern Brigantes tribe.
The 20th Legion Valeria Victrix, under the command of the General Julius Agricola, was moved north westward into Cheshire to deal with the native tribes that presented a potential threat to their plans for the wholesale subjugation of the country. One of their first targets would have been the series of Iron Age hill-forts which lay to the east of the county, including Eddisbury, all of which were systematically attacked and destroyed by the Roman forces. In 74 AD Cerialis was replaced as military governor by Julius Frontinus, who immediately set about the pacification of the Silures in South Wales. Following their defeat, Frontinus then set his sights on the Ordovices people in North Wales and in order to properly contain them and preventing their escape into other more northern territories, the new governor is reported to have ordered the construction of a new and permanent military base at Chester.

The river site, lying as it did between the northern Pennines and the mountains of North Wales was an ideal location to establish a protective gateway to both regions. This new base would also offer a launching point for later campaigns undertaken by Julius Agricola against both the Brigantes and the Celtic heartland of Anglesey. The Roman name for this place, Deva was thought to be derived from the native Celtic name for the river “Goddess” or “Holy One”, reflecting both civilisations beliefs that rivers and large bodies of water were holy or sacred. Some of the religions of the time believed that rivers, streams and open stretches of water represented the portals to and boundaries of the spirit world or the after-life. This was often reflected in the practice of depositing valuable items in water courses as offerings to the gods and spirits that lived within them.

Archaeological evidence found at the Chester fortress tends to support this time-line for the construction of the fortress. Lead ingots which have been dated from 74 AD are thought to have come from the Lead and Silver mines in Flintshire which was the tribal homeland of the Deceangli people. Also, fragments of lead water piping, stamped with Agricola’s name have also been found at the site and have been dated to around 79 AD.

The fortress with its potentially excellent harbour facilities and access to the Irish Sea was an ideal location for any proposed invasion of Ireland and also offered a base from where the Roman army could keep watch on the local native tribes. Sea power was a vital arm of the Roman military force and it is notable that the Second Legion Adiutrix was the first military unit to actually garrison the base, a force that seems to have had extensive naval experience. Much of their early work however, was dedicated to helping to construct the military base at Chester and its related installations, overseeing the mining of Lead and Silver in the Flintshire mines and patrolling the outlying areas of the settlement.

The Second Legion was recalled to the continent in around 86 AD to help support the Roman forces based on the Danube which were being threatened and attacked. It is unlikely that the departure of the Second Legion left the fortress either deserted or unprotected until such time as a replacement unit arrived. It is far more likely that the base was protected by a small number of regular troops who were deliberately held back as a rearguard unit and which were themselves supported by a number of auxiliaries. Additionally, one might suppose that there could have been a relatively large civilian population living outside of the walls of the military base and which would have helped to provision and service the forces that lay within its defences.

The legionary unit that replaced the Second Legion in around 87 AD was the Twentieth Legion Valeria Victrix, who had been under the command of Julius Agricola in his Scottish campaigns. They had been the garrison unit at the military fort at Inchtuthil in Scotland for a four or five year period prior to their new posting at Chester which was where they would ultimately spend the next few centuries. Later excavations at Inchtuthil have discovered that the buildings had been systematically demolished by the 20th Legion prior to leaving for their new posting and building timbers that could be reused later were retained by the legionaries.

Thought to have been raised in the reign of Augustus, the 20th Legion is reported to have fought its first actions in the Cantabrian campaigns which took place between 25 and 12 BC. It was later employed in the Balkans by Tiberius and under the same commander, the legion was used to restore order in a series of Germanic campaigns. They also helped to suppress a rebellion in Gaul and during the reign of the mad emperor Caligula were once again used in a second series of military campaigns in Germania.
The Legion was reported to have been present at Illyricum, under the command of Valerius Messalinus and following the loss of 3 Legions by Quintilius Varus in central Germany, the 20th was reported to have been one of the replacement units sent to avenge this defeat.
Under the command of Germanicus, records of the 20th Legion have been found at both modern day Bonn and Cologne.
Having helped to restore order in the region, members of the 20th were then reported to have mutinied and the rebellion was only finally quashed when a number of the ringleaders were executed. Offered assurances about their future treatment by their commander Germanicus, the 20th later appear to have become a Legion of some note and held in high regard, often being trusted to undertake the most hazardous and arduous of tasks on behalf of the Empire.

Because of their experience and reliability, the 20th Legion was chosen as one of four to help spearhead the invasion of Britain ordered by the Emperor Claudius in 42 AD. Under the command of Suetonius Paulinus, they were engaged in the subjugation of the native tribes of Southern Britain and around 60 AD units of the 20th were instrumental in crushing the revolt of the Iceni leader, Boudicca.
During the Civil War which erupted in 69 AD, between Vespasian and Vitellius, the Legion was reported to be under the command of Julius Agricola, a soldier well suited to handle the formidable and highly experienced force. It was reported that Agricola himself declared for the cause of Vespasian and in all likelihood the bulk of his command did the same.
12 months later and with the Empire once more settled, the Legion was thought to have remained under the command of Agricola for a 2 year period, from 69 to 71 AD. When their former commander was appointed as British Governor in around 78 AD, they were once again reunited during Agricola’s military campaigns against the tribes of North Wales and northern Britain. Initially, the 20th were supposed to have been stationed at Inchtuthill in Scotland and later excavations suggest that the construction of their new base was well underway, until events elsewhere brought about their sudden redeployment.

At its height, the Legion was thought to consist of 5,400 men, with an equal number of auxiliaries, including a naval contingent which has often been suggested at Chester, given its port and access to the sea. During military campaigns, the fortress would probably have been manned and protected by a reserve force which continued to maintain its functions, until the main body of troops returned. In times of peace, most of the legionary force would have been occupied rebuilding their home station, with its auxiliaries guarding and patrolling the wider region.
Although there are no clearly defined records as to when the 20th Legion finally left their military fortress at Chester, there are any number of suggested dates for its occurrence. One event, which has been suggested as the reason for the 20th Legion’s departure from Britain, was the dispute between Stilicho and Alaric, which saw Rome itself besieged by the Barbarians and which ultimately led to the demise of the Roman Empire.

By about 80 AD the new fortress had reached the absolute limits of its construction in terms of the area that it would actually cover. Comparable fortresses of the time invariably covered some 50 acres of land, yet at Chester the enclosure measured just short of 60 acres, which can only begin to suggest the sites increased importance to its Roman builders. One possible explanation for this additional space being made available, was to accommodate a separate naval detachment within the fortress. An inscription later found within the base may have actually referred to a sailor rather than a soldier and it is entirely plausible that a naval contingent would have visited and stayed at Chester on a regular basis. The Dee Estuary was an extremely important transport link for the emerging fortress and the inhabitants would have relied heavily on imported stores being shipped in to the base. The risk of losing such goods, to pirates or local tribesmen would have made it essential for the garrison to protect the river at all costs and it therefore likely that a Roman fleet of some description would have operated within the area.

The base was built in a manner which was typical of the period, a turf covered rampart some 20-odd feet from front to back, around 10 feet high and fronted by a ditch which itself was around 10 feet deep and 20 odd feet wide. On top of this grassed rampart stood a wooden palisade which was approximately 10 feet high and backed by a walkway on which sentries patrolled. Each of the four walls included a gateway, which in turn were guarded by a pair of timber watch towers. Additionally, along the length of each wall it is likely that there were individual guard towers that provided extra protection to the fortress. The actual line of these original defences has subsequently been identified through later archaeological excavations. The northern and eastern walls were sited at their present locations, with the western wall running slightly to the east of the present-day Linenhall Place and Nicholas Street. The southern wall is known to have run along a line between present-day White Friars and Pepper Street, intersecting modern-day Bridge Street and Lower Bridge Street.
Within this defensive enclosure, many of the buildings were initially constructed of wattle and daub, with the exception of the more important structures, such as the legionary bath houses, temples, etc. Despite the relatively simple level of construct, some of these buildings were furnished to an extremely high standard and included elaborately decorated walls and tiled roofs. A permanent fresh water supply had been in place for a lengthy period of time, utilising local wells and springs and a well developed sewerage system existed, which drained the waste and water from both the military bath houses and latrines.

Outside of the south-east limits of the fortress was the Roman amphitheatre, which is thought to have originated from around 76 AD. Initially it was a timber built structure designed for use as a weapons training area, for performing plays and holding large scale sports events. There is some evidence to suggest that this original timber building was itself replaced by a stone built amphitheatre within a few years of its initial construction. No actual date has been clearly identified for this reconstruction, but it has been proposed that it was designed to mark the arrival of one of the resident legions. A shrine to the deity Nemesis was found on the site, which was appropriate given the actual purpose of the building. The later stone construction was thought to have had a seating capacity for around 6-7000 people, which would have accommodated the full legionary compliment and also had room for a large number of auxiliaries and civilian spectators.

Slightly to the west of the western defences lay the Roman harbour, located on the site of the modern-day Nuns Road and the Roodee racecourse. At the time of the Roman invasion, the Roodee was no more than a small flooded island surrounded by the original course of the River Dee, which ran directly beneath what are now the city’s walls in that area. The Roodee derives its name from a combination of much later Saxon and Norse words. "Rood" reflects the Saxon word for cross and "Eye" was a Norse suffix for isle or island, so the literal meaning of Roodee is "island of the cross".

It is not entirely clear, whether or not the Roodee itself was such a feature at the time of the Roman settlement. It is just as likely that it lay beneath the then much deeper and stronger River Dee and only became a substantial feature, as the river began to weaken in subsequent centuries. The massive stones of the original Roman harbour wall (illustrated below) which once secured Roman galley’s and merchant ships of the Empire are still evident to the present day, but are largely obscured by modern construction and vegetation. In 1874, a Roman tomb dating to about the year 90 AD was found near the south end of the main public grandstand. It contained two skeletons, one of which was wearing a gold ring and lying beneath a tombstone, both of which are now held in the care of the local museum. Later constructions and developments have resulted in this particular area of the Roman settlement either being buried or partially destroyed over the course of the past two millennia. The present day Watergate is perhaps more representative of the true ground level of the Roman harbour area as it was then, rather than the artificially heightened area that we see today.

A little way south of the fortress’s southern wall, lay the River Dee and the suggested route for the arrival of the first Roman legions. The site of the present Old Dee Bridge is thought to mark the point of the first timber built structure erected by the Roman settlers to ford the River Dee. Later evidence does seem to indicate that the original timber bridge may have lain along a slightly different alignment to its current successor, with its southern end located slightly to the east of its present position. Once across the river in Handbridge, troops and travellers could then move southward from Chester to Eccleston along the main Roman road called Watling Street and on to their southern settlements. They could also travel westward skirting the Saltney Marshes through to Hawarden and then on to Flint and the North Wales coast.

On its way to Eccleston the road would have passed through the Roman settlement at Heronbridge, located some 2 miles south of the fortress. Close to the River Dee, the site is thought to having been a staging post for the supplies of tiles and pottery produced at the Roman works depot at Holt. It was at Heronbridge that these supplies were transferred from the river to the road for the final part of their journey to Chester. Later excavations at the site have since yielded evidence of continuous Roman occupation on the site, including the presence of a quayside and burial tombs. The site is also known to have been used for corn-drying and bronze-smithing and was thought to have continued in existence until around the fourth century.

Outside of the northern defences of the fortress lay the Roman road called Blake Street leading to the Wirral Peninsula and the major supply depot located at Meols. Today, much of this route follows the line of the modern Parkgate Road as it runs out from the city to the village of Mollington. The north gate was also thought to be the route by which the legions travelled north east from Chester to Wilderspool, the site of an auxiliary fort, via modern day Hoole, Bridge Trafford and Helsby. Each of these vitally important thoroughfares may well have been used and protected by regular Roman patrols that set up temporary marching camps along their length. A number of such camps were clearly identified by the use of aerial photography between the 1980’s and 1990’s and were located around Christleton, Guilden Sutton, Hoole, Manley, Picton and Upton-by-Chester.

Although only temporary constructions, the marching camps employed by the troops were generally rugged and well made fortifications. Shaped along the lines of a more permanent base, similar to a playing card, the camp was protected by a defensive ditch at the front and backed by an earthen rampart, which was topped by a wooden palisade. Access, in and out of this enclosure was by way of gateways which were themselves protected by sentries.
Often these camps would have been constructed in advance of the patrol or of the Legion itself, by members of the unit who had preceded the main force. Once built, it seems likely that these protective enclosures would be used repeatedly, as and when they were required by the military.

The papihones or leather tents were generally used by legionaries when they were away from their permanent quarters, on campaign or while patrolling. Within a Roman camp, these tents were erected in a line of 8, at the end of which would be the Centurion’s, allowing him easy access to his troops. Each papihone could accommodate 8 men, making a total of 64 bed spaces for the troops. The remaining legionaries would be on guard duty, protecting their comrades from attack and suggesting that bed spaces were swapped around as men came on and off duty.

Given the time that has passed and the limited record-keeping of the period, it is little wonder that we have such meager details about the men that made up the bulk of a Roman Legion and often such information is found as a matter of luck, rather than be design. A large number of tombstones, altars and Legionary stones have been recovered through archaeological excavations and sometimes they offer us the slightest of insights into the lives of the men that they honor.

Aelius Claudian was recorded as an Optio, or second in command to a centurion at Chester, who dedicated an altar to the Guardian Spirit of the Legion

Antiochus was thought to have been a doctor with the Roman legions at their Chester fortress and has been credited with dedicating a red sandstone altar to the “all surpassing saviors of men” The altar, which was unearthed in 1968, during excavations at Chester’s Old Market Hall, was unusual in that the actual dedication is written in Greek script, which may or may not indicate the origins Antiochus himself.

Aulus Julius Marullinus was a soldier with special duties within the Legion and may well have served as a bodyguard or attaché to one of the Legions senior officers. His memorial stone at Chester, records his age as 45 years old at the time of his death.

Caecilius Avitus was as a veteran who had seen 15 years service with the 20th Legion and was also a deputy to a centurion within the legion. He was also reported to be a religious seer, who could interpret questions asked of the gods, simply by looking at the entrails of sacrificed animals.

Decimus Capienus Urbicus was recorded as a native of Vienna, who served as a Standard Bearer or “Signifer” with the resident Legion and who had twenty four years service in the army. At the time of his death he was forty four years old. Typically his duties would have included those of Paymaster, paying the individual soldiers and ensuring the security of the legionary pay chest which was held in a strong room within the headquarters building. He would have also been responsible for keeping the legionary accounts and would have probably been based at the “Principia” or headquarters building.

Decimus Titianus was known to be a veteran of the 20th Legion Valeria Victrix who dedicated an altar to the spirit of his former comrades at the Chester fortress.

Festinius Probus was thought to have been the two year old son of a Roman administrator or trader who died at the Chester fortress. His memorial stone was paid for by his father Lucius Probianus.

Flavius Callimorphus was possibly a member of the fortress’ civil administration, assuming that a Roman officer or soldier would not have his young family stationed with him. His memorial stone, dedicated by his brother Thesaeus, mentions not only Flavius himself but his three and a half year old son, Serapionus, who was interred with his father.

Flavius Longus was a military tribune, stationed at the Deva fortress during the occupation of the 20th Legion. He was attributed with building an altar to the honor of the Emperor’s Diocresian and Maximian, which was erected in the area of modern day Eastgate Street. The dedication was also shared by his son Longinus, who along with his father were natives of Samosata, a town close to the border of modern day Iran.

Gabinius Felix was recorded as being 40 years old at the time of his death and was said to be a soldier in the 2nd Augustan Legion, which had been raised by the Roman Emperor Antonine. The memorial stone dedicated to him was arranged by his family.

Gaius Juventius Capito was a soldier of the 2nd Legion Adiutrix, who served under a Centurion, called Julius Clemens and had completed seventeen years of service with the army. He was forty years old at the time of his death and his memorial stone suggests he was a native of modern day Bulgaria.

Gaius Valerius Crispus was a veteran of the 2nd Legion Adiutrix who dedicated a memorial stone to his former unit in the city. It was not uncommon for army veterans to settle down close to their former comrades. The 2nd Legion left the Chester fortress around 80 AD to return to the continent.

Marcus Aurelius Alexander was recorded as the Prefect of the Camp for the 20th Legion Valeria Victrix, who was thought to be responsible for the day-to-day running of the legionary camp. The dedication stone, states that Alexander was 72 years old and was formerly a Syrian citizen.

Publius Rustius Crescens was an Italian born legionary who was thirty years old when he died and had served ten years with the 20th Legion Valeria Victrix. His heir “Groma” arranged for a memorial stone to be erected at the Chester fortress.

Quintus Valerius Fronto was a veteran of the 2nd Legion Adiutrix; he was fifty years old at the time of his death and had completed his 25 years of service with the army. A large number of veterans chose to settle close to their former comrades and either received a parcel of land to settle or entered into a civilian occupation. His memorial stone suggests he was a native of modern day Slovenia.

Quintus Vibius Secundus was a Roman soldier that served under the command of a centurion called Octavianus from the 20th Legion. According to his memorial stone, Quintus was a native of Italy.

Titinius Felix was stationed at Chester with the 20th Legion Valeria Victrix and was forty five years old at the time of his death. His stated rank suggests that he was a specialist within the legion and might well have served as a bodyguard or attaché to one of the fortresses officers. His life was commemorated by his wife Julia Similina and the remaining members of his family

Voltimesis Pudens was a horse trooper in the 2nd Legion Adiutrix Voltimesis and was forty two years old at the time of his death and had served thirteen years with the army of Rome.

In addition to the fairly anonymous soldiers that were recorded to have died at Chester, it has been suggested that a small number of relatively famous individuals would have visited the military fortress as part of their “state” visits to the Roman Province. These included;
The Roman Emperor Hadrian (left) was reported to have visited Britain in around 120 AD to tour the province and is perhaps best remembered for the defensive wall that bears his name. Milestones which have been unearthed during excavations in the northwest region suggest that the Emperor visited the Roman fortress at Chester as part of his itinerary.
Julius Agricola was thought to have been born in Southern France around AD 40 and was the son of a local Roman administrator and the daughter of a minor aristocratic family. Not surprisingly, he chose to pursue a military career and around the age of 20 was said to have been a Tribune under the command of Suetonius Paulinus while he was in Britain. He was reported to have been actively involved in the suppression of the Iceni people, following the revolt of their Queen, Boudicca.
A decade or so later, during the bitter civil war which erupted between the rival factions which supported competing candidates for the Imperial throne, Agricola openly declared for Vespasian, the man who subsequently became Emperor. Legend suggests that his mother had been killed by forces loyal to Vitellius, the alternative candidate to Vespasian and that this event had decided Agricola’s choice.
Perhaps as a reward for his support of the new Caesar, he was soon appointed as commander of the highly experienced 20th Legion in Britain, under the Governorship of Petilius Cerialis. Almost immediately, Agricola was employed in military campaigns against the native tribes of North Wales and Northern Britain, including the Ordovices and Brigantes. His resulting military successes saw him transferred to both Aquitania and Rome and added to his already growing reputation as a leading military commander of his day. It was also around this time that his daughter married the noted writer and historian Tacitus.

Around AD 78 Agricola was appointed as the military Governor of Britain and it was during the next 6 years that he was thought to have planned and implemented the final defeat of the troublesome British tribes and ordered the construction of numerous bases and forts. In North Wales he set about conquering the Ordovices tribe, including their religious and military centers on the isle of Anglesey. It was during these campaigns that Agricola was thought to have ordered that the earlier military base at Chester be more fully developed and enlarged, to act as a gateway between the lands of North Wales and Northern Britain. It has been suggested that during the winter months, the Chester fortress was used as Agricola’s military headquarters.
Having substantially subdued most of Northwest Britain, Agricola now moved further north and into the Scottish border region. He managed to advance the Roman Empire to the very banks of the River Tay and consolidated the line between the Forth and the Clyde by constructing a series of manned military bases to protect his gains. Initially, the 20th Legion, Agricola’s former command was to have been a part of these plans, but events elsewhere in the Empire prevented their use. The strategic withdrawal of the 2nd Legion Adiutrix from their base at Chester left the relatively new fortress on the Dee without a legionary force, so Agricola was reported to have assigned his former comrade-in-arms that particular task.

Around AD 84, Agricola was reported to have fought a decisive battle against the Caledonian tribes of Scotland at Mons Graupius, where he crushed the Scottish forces. This success, along with his many other victories, brought him to the attention of the Emperor, Domitian (right) who jealous of his Governor’s fame, ordered Agricola to return to Rome. Although Agricola was accorded a great welcome by the Emperor, Senate and the people of Rome, his return effectively marked an end to his glorious military career. Forced into early retirement by the Emperor, he lived the rest of his life on his family estates until his death in AD 93, at the relatively young age of 53. Agricola’s son-in-law, Tacitus, recorded the rise of the Roman Empire and in doing so he immortalized his father-in-law for future generations. Whether or not Agricola deserved the plaudits accorded to him is unclear, but there is little doubt that he was a remarkable and skilled militarist who helped to consolidate the Roman province of Britain.

Ostorius Scapula was the Roman Governor of Britain in around 49 AD, who has been credited with building the first Roman military settlement at the Chester site and is considered by some to be the founder of the city. This early settlement was thought to have been a logistical centre, constructed to supply Scapula’s Legions in their military campaigns against the Ordovices, Deceangi and the Brigantes tribes. The stores depot was said to have been protected by a smaller military fortress, which was the predecessor of the much larger camp which remains in evidence today.

Septimius Severus was the Roman Emperor in around 208 AD, who was reported to have visited the British Province, along with his son Caracalla. Milestones excavated at Llanfairfechan were said to have praised the 3 Emperors, Severus and his two sons Caracalla and Geta. Given that the Imperial party were in North Wales, it seems highly likely that they would have visited and perhaps based themselves at the Chester fortress.

When the Roman legions first invaded Britain they found that the country’s road system was nothing more than a collection of individual paths and tracks which were often disconnected and tended to lead from one individual settlement to another. For the Roman commanders the most important function of a British road network was for the rapid movement of troops and supplies away from their landing areas on the south coast through to their new military centers and their front-line legionary forts. The first major road that they constructed extended from Lincoln through to Gloucester and was known as the Fosse Way the first main Roman road in Britain. Their later military campaigns pushed this initial road network forward from Lincoln through to York, then on to Wroxeter and finally the new legionary fortress at Chester. By around 82 AD this new Roman road network had been pushed forward to the Clyde and the Firth of Forth in Scotland and had over 60 front-line forts running along its 1000 mile length.

On to part IV: A Future Set in Stone

phillip.freelancer@virgin.net